Nature 531, 466470 (2016). Viruses in the sea. Bacterial cells containing an integrated prophage, which can be induced, excised fromthe chromosome and enter thelytic cycle. PeerJ 5, e3243 (2017). Of the 43 phage-encoded proteins, 16 are used in constructing the head and 27 for the tail. Minot, S. & Bryson, A. Modular architecture of the T4 phage superfamily: a conserved core genome and a plastic periphery. 84, 117 (2018). Genome mosaicism can also be observed by comparing genes at the amino acid sequence level, identifying genes of common ancestry that diverged sufficiently long ago that nucleotide sequence similarity is no longer recognizable (Fig. Simmonds, P. et al. Rev. While there are a number of advantages of these metagenomic approaches including the vast amounts of sequence data that are obtained the disadvantage is that the output is pure data, and no biological materials for further experimentation are recovered [8]. Google Scholar. 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PubMed EMBO J. Structure of the archaeal headtailed virus HSTV-1 completes the HK97 fold story. Breitbart, M. et al. Microbiol. And yet the pace of phage genome characterization has slowed over the past three years, reflecting in part a need to transition from sequencing known and well-characterized bacteriophages to the isolation and comparative analysis of new isolates. Nature 474, 604608 (2011). McMahon SA, Roberts GA, Johnson KA, Cooper LP, Liu H, White JH, Carter LG, Sanghvi B, Oke M, Walkinshaw MD, et al. Natl Acad. Peabody, D. S. The RNA binding site of bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. Appl. Williamson, K. E., Fuhrmann, J. J., Wommack, K. E. & Radosevich, M. Viruses in soil ecosystems: an unknown quantity within an unexplored territory. Doore, S. M. & Fane, B. J. Virol. 2, 19 (2017). An official website of the United States government. Sci. Zhu H, Yin S, Shuman S. Characterization of polynucleotide kinase/phosphatase enzymes from Mycobacteriophages omega and Cjw1 and vibriophage KVP40. The chromosome is contained in a large capsule of protein, and it is injected into the host through a hollow, tubular tail. 99, 617618 (2018). Sci. USA 102, 1894418949 (2005). Ocean plankton. Duarte, C. M. Seafaring in the 21st century: the Malaspina 2010 Circumnavigation Expedition. Proc. 1, 2, 3. Appelt, S. et al. It is a virulent bacteriophage which infects Escherichia coli bacteria. Marine viruses major players in the global ecosystem. Sequencing and analysis of the prolate-headed lactococcal bacteriophage c2 genome and identification of the structural genes. A. et al. Their average size is substantially less than that of core genes, often by nearly a factor of two, and it has been suggested that they may correspond to individual functional protein domains [35,36]. J. Gen. Virol. Lawrence JG, Hatfull GF, Hendrix RW. Its genome consists of linear double-stranded DNA, with repeats at either end. 184, 48914905 (2002). Brum, J. R. & Sullivan, M. B. 3, 754766 (2018). In the phage genomes, 5hmC is further glycosylated to 5ghmC and provides protection against cleavage by bacterial restriction endonucleases [1]. Sequencing of complete bacterial genomes has become relatively simple and there are over 1,600 completely sequenced bacterial chromosomes. Open Access Szymczak, P., Janzen, T., Neves, R. & Kot, W. Novel variants of Streptococcus thermophilus bacteriophages are indicative of genetic recombination among phages from different bacterial species. Nat. 9, 472484 (2015). 12, 595600 (1993). Capsids and genomes of jumbo-sized bacteriophages reveal the evolutionary reach of the HK97 fold. . Article Proc. Virus taxonomy in the age of metagenomics. Adv. Casjens S. Prophages and bacterial genomics: what have we learned so far? ISSN 1740-1534 (online) Thank you for visiting nature.com. Minot, S. et al. Structure 6, 135145 (1998). Commun. Jang, H. Bin et al. Virology 468, 421443 (2014). Learn how and when to remove this template message, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Enterobacteria_phage_T2&oldid=1118782073, Articles needing additional references from April 2010, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 28 October 2022, at 21:29. 7, 12524 (2016). & Myers, R. J. 8, 14310 (2017). Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. Barr, J. J. et al. Mavrich, T. N. & Hatfull, G. F. Bacteriophage evolution differs by host, lifestyle and genome. These prokaryotic phage proteins share significant homology with the bacterial gyrase and the ParE and ParC proteins. Casjens, S. R. The DNA-packaging nanomotor of tailed bacteriophages. (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2023. The phylogenetic relationships of the three genes (134, 136 and 137) are represented as phamily circles, in which all genomes within the Phamerator database (S. Cresawn, manuscript submitted) are positioned around the circumference of the circle, and arcs are drawn between those phages sharing members of the phamily, with the thickness of the line reflecting the strength of sequence similarity. Phage genomes are mosaic, but not all genes in a given genome participate in mosaicism to the same degree. A., Dishaw, L. J. Pittsburgh Bacteriophage Institute and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, 412 624 6975, The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at, Bacteriophage genomes are enormously diverse, Bacteriophage genomes are pervasively mosaic, Bacteriophage-host dynamics are strong drivers of their evolution. Early life dynamics of the human gut virome and bacterial microbiome in infants. In general, these genomes are packaged at similar densities into their capsids and the size of the capsid varies as a function of genome size. PLoS Genet. We predict that many more phage genes participate in these dances for survival, but that answers to these questions will await further dissection of bacteriophages genomes and their biology. Vidaver, A. K., Koski, R. K. & Van Etten, J. L. Bacteriophage 6: a lipid-containing virus of Pseudomonas phaseolicola. . But we have barely scratched the surface and the next years of phage genome exploration promise to be especially revealing. WebLength of the filamentous phage is determined by size of the DNA in the genome Inserts of up 42 Kb have been introduced into M13 genome and packaged (7x genome size) ~8 copies of the Gene III protein are attached at the end of the extruded genome The smallest known genome is possessed by the bacterium Carsonella ruddi 160,000 base pairs. A large variation in capsid size can be observed among members of the Caudovirales, with diameters ranging from 45 to 185 nm, which is usually linked to genome size 18. 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) was first described in 1952 when it was found in the genomes of T-even bacteriophages (T2 and T4). Luo, E., Aylward, F. O., Mende, D. R. & DeLong, E. F. Bacteriophage distributions and temporal variability in the oceans interior. Microbiol. Article A second general approach is viral metagenomics, in which the viral population is harvested en masse from an environmental source, concentrated, and large numbers of DNA segments sequenced at random [5,6]. Proc. At the time of writing the total number of unique sequenced bacteriophage genomes is about 750. Biol. Structure of the connector of bacteriophage T7 at 8A resolution: structural homologies of a basic component of a DNA translocating machinery. Phage genome size varies enormously, ranging from the ~3,300 nucleotide ssRNA viruses of Escherichia coli [16] to the almost 500 kbp genome of Bacillus megaterium phage G (our unpublished data). PubMed Central This study uses single-virus genomics to identify the most widespread phages in the ocean, which were previously overlooked in metagenomics projects because of their high microdiversity. Sci. Adriaenssens, E. M. et al. 35, 11471159 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-019-0311-5. Article Martinez-Hernandez, F. et al. Breitbart, M. et al. Commun. Virology 479480, 487497 (2015). Asymmetric cryo-EM reconstruction of phage MS2 reveals genome structure in situ. government site. ^ {1,2,3} 1,2,3. start superscript, 1, comma, 2, comma, 3, end superscript. Fabry, C. M. S. et al. J. Bacteriol. Nat. Virulent viruses that attack Escherichia coli and other enterobacteria. Candidate receptors fadL ::Tn ( A = 2.60) and ompF ::Tn ( A = 2.53) were identified ( Fig. 75, 610635 (2011). Abrescia, N. G. et al. Microbiol. Drosophila Melanogaster 123 million b.p. The host range of the recombinant phages was identical to that of IP008. Koning, R. I. et al. The largest bacteriophage genomes reach a size of 735 kb. Res. Oceanogr. PubMed 18, 42404253 (2016). Microbiol. Sci. T2, T4, and T6 phages differ in the cell wall receptors to which they bind. The observation that the corresponding genes travel together with the head and tail genes is less easily explained but may reflect well-documented interactions among recombination proteins and DNA replication initiation and between recombination proteins and DNA packaging [34]. mBio 7, e01781e01815 (2016). Article The smallest of the dsDNA tailed phages genomes are ~11.5 kbp [e.g. Peralta, B. et al. Genome Res. & Breitbart, M. Unprecedented diversity of ssDNA phages from the family Microviridae detected within the gut of a protochordate model organism (Ciona robusta). Pope, W. H. et al. Genes are drawn and annotated as in Figure 1; those that have no homologues among the collection of mycobacteriophage genomes are shown as white boxes. These prokaryotic phage proteins share significant homology with the bacterial gyrase and the ParE and ParC proteins. Struct. Similar groups of genes that travel together through evolution may include the tail genes, or lysis genes, among others. J. Bacteriol. WebT2 phage Genome size: 170,000 bp Common name: virus Escherichia coli Genome size: 4.6 million bp Common name: Bacteria Drosophila melanogaster Genome size: 130 million bp Common name: Fruit fly Homo sapiens Genome size: 3.2 billion bp Common name: Human Paris japonica Genome size: 150 billion bp Common name: canopy plant Students also viewed T2 is a 'tailed phage', [1] one of a group known as the 'T4-like viruses'. Article Environ. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes 2, 16010 (2016). Structure of the bacteriophage 6 nucleocapsid suggests a mechanism for sequential RNA packaging. Dion, M.B., Oechslin, F. & Moineau, S. Phage diversity, genomics and phylogeny. Environ. Modular structure of the receptor binding proteins of Lactococcus lactis phages. Nat. T2 phage had very high genomic sequence similarity to SV76 (99.99% identity), so we performed host range analysis of T2 with the same bacteria strains to see whether the genomic similarity translated to host range phenotypic similarity. J. Bacteriol. National Library of Medicine WebIn T2 genes 39 and 60 are fused into one gene (605 amino acids), and it is equivalent to gyrB ( Huang, 1990). PubMed Central First, there are examples of short conserved sequences at gene boundaries that could serve to target homologous recombination to these positions [27,28]. USA 110, 1077110776 (2013). This study shows the evolutionary relationships that can exist among diverse groups of phage proteins. Furthermore, phage-encoded homologous recombinases have properties that are well-suited to facilitating this process [31]. Google Scholar. 8600 Rockville Pike The capsid of a bacteriophage can be icosahedral, filamentous, or 154, 231236 (2003). T4 and Related Phages: Structure and Development. Brum, J. R., Hurwitz, B. L., Schofield, O., Ducklow, H. W. & Sullivan, M. B. El Omari, K. et al. Pedulla ML, Ford ME, Houtz JM, Karthikeyan T, Wadsworth C, Lewis JA, Jacobs-Sera D, Falbo J, Gross J, Pannunzio NR, et al. Extensive DNA mimicry by the ArdA anti-restriction protein and its role in the spread of antibiotic resistance. Knowles, B. et al. J. The phage-related chromosomal islands of Gram-positive bacteria. Bacteriophages offer a special perspective on the diversity, origins, and evolution of viruses, not only in their tremendous abundance there are more than 1031 phage particles in the biosphere but in their distant origins, likely more than three billion years ago [1,2]. Virus Res. Rev. PubMed Sci. Biol. Biol. Ackermann, H.-W. Bacteriophage electron microscopy. Mol. Proc. Google Scholar. Microbiol. However, a ~1.8 kbp segment of Colbert is closely related to Rosebush (94% nucleotide identity) and was presumably acquired relatively recently from a Rosebush-like phage. Nature 355, 137143 (1992). Nature 537, 689693 (2016). 185, 62206223 (2003). http://www.phage.ulaval.ca. Open Access The T2 phage can quickly turn an E. coli cell into a T2-producing factory that releases phages when the cell ruptures. 152, 227243 (2007). From: Gene-Environment Interactions in Psychiatry, 2016 View all Topics Download as PDF About this page DNA Topoisomerases: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Overall, phage genomes represent only about 15% of all viruses with known unique sequences and are thus vastly under-represented in the genome databases. Bull. Limnol. A 3D conformation termed after the capsid protein structure of phage HK97. J. Mol. Hendrix, R. W., Hatfull, G. F. & Smith, M. C. M. Bacteriophages with tails: chasing their origins and evolution. Additional plausible mechanisms are by transposition, site-specific recombination, and homing endonucleases and while all these contribute they are likely also minor components. Its genome consists of linear double-stranded DNA, with repeats at either end. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. Rev. Krupovi, M. & Bamford, D. H. Virus evolution: how far does the double -barrel viral lineage extend? Receptor-binding protein of Lactococcus lactis phages: identification and characterization of the saccharide receptor-binding site. Phages have adapted the same protein fold to fulfill multiple functions in virion assembly. Perhaps the most striking feature emerging from phage genome comparative analyses is that they are pervasively mosaic with different segments having distinct evolutionary histories [23]. However, accurately identifying prophages and phage-related objects remains a challenge especially for those bacteria for which few if any viruses have been characterized and it is not easy to predict from genome information alone which of these can generate infectious particles through prophage induction. Megaphages infect Prevotella and variants are widespread in gut microbiomes. Chopin, A., Bolotin, A., Sorokin, A., Ehrlich, S. D. & Chopin, M.-C. In 1952 Alfred Day Hershey and Martha Chase used the T2 bacteriophage in a famous experiment in which they demonstrated that only the nucleic acids of phage molecules were required for their replication within bacteria. Their dsDNAs are linear, cyclically permuted, and terminally redundant. Nature 340, 467468 (1989). WebGenome size can vary greatly between organisms and is not a valid indicator of genetic complexity. J. Virol. 80, 26482655 (2014). Hatfull, G. F. Bacteriophage genomics. Lima-Mendez, G., Helden, J. The DNA of the phage is injected into E. coli cells. Nature 513, 242245 (2014). Williamson, K. E., Radosevich, M. & Wommack, K. E. Abundance and diversity of viruses in six Delaware soils. As with the head genes discussed above, this more extensive case of genetic linkage can be understood in terms of the interactions of the encoded proteins: T4s DNA replication proteins form a complex, the nucleotide metabolism genes probably form a complex that feeds precursors into the DNA replication machine. The genes that travel together include head genes, tail genes, DNA replication genes, and nucleotide metabolism genes. Olia, A. S., Prevelige Jr., P. E., Johnson, J. E. & Cingolani, G. Three-dimensional structure of a viral genome-delivery portal vertex. A decade of Streptococcus thermophilus phage evolution in an Irish dairy plant. These include Gene Transfer Agents [12], pathogenicity islands [13], encapsuins [14] and large bacteriocins [15], among others. With a sufficiently large collection of diverse genome sequences, homologues can be identified that are present in otherwise far-distantly related phages and establish their phylogenetic relationships [24]. Roux, S. et al. Gregory, A. C. et al. Candidate receptors fadL ::Tn ( A = 2.60) and ompF ::Tn ( A = 2.53) were identified ( Fig. Proc. The lambda red proteins promote efficient recombination between diverged sequences: implications for bacteriophage genome mosaicism. Krupovic, M., Prangishvili, D., Hendrix, R. W. & Bamford, D. H. Genomics of bacterial and archaeal viruses: dynamics within the Prokaryotic virosphere. Suttle CA. 184, 45294535 (2002). Drosophila Melanogaster 123 million b.p. Furthermore, the recombinant phage bacterial lytic T2 phage had very high genomic sequence similarity to SV76 (99.99% identity), so we performed host range analysis of T2 with the same bacteria strains to see whether the genomic similarity translated to host range phenotypic similarity. CAS 13, 147159 (2015). The examples of genome and chromosome number have been selected to allow points of interest to be raised Paris japonica Largest Known Genome Microbiol. Furthermore, the recombinant phage bacterial lytic 5, 105110 (2014). Thingstad, T. F., Vage, S., Storesund, J. E., Sandaa, R.-A. Silveira, C. B. Their dsDNAs are linear, cyclically permuted, and terminally redundant. 3B) resulted in 143 significant hits, of which 86 (SI Appendix, Dataset S1) were positively enriched in the presence of phage T2. 3B) resulted in 143 significant hits, of which 86 (SI Appendix, Dataset S1) were positively enriched in the presence of phage T2. Structure 14, 10391048 (2006). Google Scholar. Spinelli, S. et al. Open Access articles citing this article. Sci. 29, 644651 (2001). Hurwitz, B. L., Brum, J. R. & Sullivan, M. B. Depth-stratified functional and taxonomic niche specialization in the core and flexible Pacific Ocean virome. [Genome size is the total length of DNA in an organism. Escherichia Coli 5 million b.p. Web1 Introduction. Phylogenet. 3, 566571 (2013). Plate tectonics of virus shell assembly and reorganization in phage 8, a distant relative of mammalian reoviruses. Maps were generated using the program Phamerator (S. Cresawn, manuscript submitted). Direct 7, 114 (2012). 2). 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) was first described in 1952 when it was found in the genomes of T-even bacteriophages (T2 and T4). ^ {1,2,3} 1,2,3. start superscript, 1, comma, 2, comma, 3, end superscript. Microbiome 5, 83 (2017). Metagenomic analyses of an uncultured viral community from human feces. The first phages that were studied in detail included seven that commonly infect E. coli. From: Gene-Environment Interactions in Psychiatry, 2016 View all Topics Download as PDF About this page DNA Topoisomerases: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 11, e1001667 (2013). Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. Virol. As a result, if recombination generates a hybrid by joining parts of head gene sets from two different phages, the recombinant would be non-functional and so lost from the population, even though each of the genes was fully functional in its original context. 3 E 18, 597603 (2011). Genes are colored according to their phamily membership. Bergh, ., Brsheim, K. Y., Bratbak, G. & Heldal, M. High abundance of viruses found in aquatic environments. Sci. McKenna, R. et al. For example there are fewer than 50 each of completely sequenced RNA phages and ssDNA phages, and of the more than 500 sequenced dsDNA tailed phages, ~55% are morphologically members of the Siphoviridae with long flexible non-contractile tails; the remainder are Myoviridae with contractile tails and Podoviridae with short stubby tails (~25% and ~20% respectively). WebIn T2 genes 39 and 60 are fused into one gene (605 amino acids), and it is equivalent to gyrB ( Huang, 1990). Flix dHrelle Reference Center for Bacterial Viruses: Cell 31, 749761 (2008). Experiments conducted in 1952 by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase demonstrated how the DNA of viruses is injected into the bacterial cells, while most of the viral proteins remain outside. Microbiol. Phage genome size varies enormously, ranging from the ~3,300 nucleotide ssRNA viruses of Escherichia coli[16] to the almost 500 kbp genome of Bacillus megateriumphage G (our Nature 554, 118122 (2018). Curr. Structural dynamics of bacteriophage P22 infection initiation revealed by cryo-electron tomography. PubMed Gogokhia, L. et al. mBio 8, e01579-17 (2017). 3 E This article reports the ability of RNA phages to adopt defined conformations that can be involved in genome packaging and virion assembly. J. Virol. Virol. Evol. Mechanism of membranous tunnelling nanotube formation in viral genome delivery. Marine viruses--major players in the global ecosystem. Biol. Opin. The phage can attach to the surface of a bacterium using the proteins on its 'feet' (tail fibers), and inject its genetic material (either DNA or RNA). PubMedGoogle Scholar. Viral dark matter and virushost interactions resolved from publicly available microbial genomes. Benson, S. D., Bamford, J. K., Bamford, D. H. & Burnett, R. M. Viral evolution revealed by bacteriophage PRD1 and human adenovirus coat protein structures. Structure of an archaeal virus capsid protein reveals a common ancestry to eukaryotic and bacterial viruses. Because virion infectivity is influenced by the amount of DNA packaged within any given capsid either too little or too much leads to loss of virion stability there are evolutionary pressures to either gain or lose DNA to accommodate packaging and virion stability. Microbiol. Bacteriophage T5 tail tube structure suggests a trigger mechanism for Siphoviridae DNA ejection. Hershey, A. D. USA 78, 17171721 (1981). A broadly implementable research course for first-year undergraduate students. About 70% of these sequenced phages correspond to only 12 different bacterial hosts, and this modest collection likely represents just a small portion of the overall diversity. 22 March 2023, Microbiome This pervasive mosaicism and the multiple phylogenies of different genomic segments renders it difficult to impose whole genome phylogenetic relationships and reticulate approaches are likely to be more informative [25,26]. Lactococcal bacteriophage p2 receptor-binding protein structure suggests a common ancestor gene with bacterial and mammalian viruses. Mol. Nature 432, 6874 (2004). Correspondence to is a recipient of a fellowship from the Swiss National Science Foundation (Early Postdoc.Mobility). Re-examination of the relationship between marine virus and microbial cell abundances. 13, e1007018 (2017). It is a virulent bacteriophage which infects Escherichia coli bacteria. 15, 161168 (2017). Sci. WebHowever, some DNA phages such as T4 may have large genomes with hundreds of genes; the size and shape of the capsid varies along with the size of the genome. Atomic structure of single-stranded DNA bacteriophage X174 and its functional implications. 8, 1953 (2017). Shkoporov, A. N. et al. The atomic structure of the phage Tuc2009 baseplate tripod suggests that host recognition involves two different carbohydrate binding modules. Overall, phage genomes represent only about 15% of all viruses with known unique sequences and are thus vastly under-represented in the genome databases. Roux, S., Hallam, S. J., Woyke, T. & Sullivan, M. B. Benson, S. D., Bamford, J. K. H., Bamford, D. H. & Burnett, R. M. Does common architecture reveal a viral lineage spanning all three domains of life? Microbiol. While these likely contribute to mosaicism, it is far from clear that this is a general mechanism, because most phage gene boundaries are not associated with conserved sequence segments sufficiently long to be recognized by the homologous recombination machinery [29]. Proc. WebT2 phage Genome size: 170,000 bp Common name: virus Escherichia coli Genome size: 4.6 million bp Common name: Bacteria Drosophila melanogaster Genome size: 130 million bp Common name: Fruit fly Homo sapiens Genome size: 3.2 billion bp Common name: Human Paris japonica Genome size: 150 billion bp Common name: canopy plant Students also viewed Paez-Espino, D. et al. WebHowever, some DNA phages such as T4 may have large genomes with hundreds of genes; the size and shape of the capsid varies along with the size of the genome. Nature 536, 425430 (2016). B. H. Genomic diversification of marine cyanophages into stable ecotypes. 1). There are essentially three types of populations available for study. Lepage, P. et al. Kristensen DM, Mushegian AR, Dolja VV, Koonin EV. 24, 1114 (2015). Mol. Viral and microbial community dynamics in four aquatic environments. Hatfull GF, Pedulla ML, Jacobs-Sera D, Cichon PM, Foley A, Ford ME, Gonda RM, Houtz JM, Hryckowian AJ, Kelchner VA, et al. Russel, M. & Model, P. A mutation downstream from the signal peptidase cleavage site affects cleavage but not membrane insertion of phage coat protein. Hendrix, R. W. Bacteriophages: evolution of the majority. Appl. The human gut virome: inter-individual variation and dynamic response to diet. The capsid of a bacteriophage can be icosahedral, filamentous, or Google Scholar. Martinsohn JT, Radman M, Petit MA. Single-cell genomics uncover Pelagibacter as the putative host of the extremely abundant uncultured 37-F6 viral population in the ocean. This selection for genome size plays an important role in bacteriophage evolution, providing a mechanism for DNA gain and loss that is independent of gene function. mBio 8, 115 (2017). 58, 465474 (2013). & Xiang, Y. Cryo-electron microscopy structure of the filamentous bacteriophage IKe. Genetic exchange events giving rise to genome mosaicism are usually only observed at the nucleotide sequence level when the events have occurred relatively recently in evolutionary time. WebPhage genomes can consist of either DNA or RNA, and can contain as few as four genes or as many as several hundred. Temperate phages acquire DNA from defective prophages by relaxed homologous recombination: the role of Rad52-like recombinases. Biol. A notable advantage of this genome-by-genome approach, however, is that individual phages with sequenced genomes become available for further genetic, biochemical and structural dissection. Microbiol. Furthermore, the recombinant phage bacterial lytic Natl Acad. Metagenomic and small-subunit rRNA analyses reveal the genetic diversity of bacteria, archaea, fungi, and viruses in soil. Each of the genes in Phams 236, 2040 and 990 clearly has a distinct evolutionary history. These discoveries supported that DNA, rather than proteins, is the hereditary material. J. Bacteriol. 157, 20352046 (2012). The largest known genome is possessed by the canopy plant Paris japonica 150 billion base pairs. These prokaryotic phage proteins share significant homology with the bacterial gyrase and the ParE and ParC proteins. Abundant SAR11 viruses in the ocean. Viral tagging reveals discrete populations in Synechococcus viral genome sequence space. The largest known genome is possessed by the canopy plant Paris japonica 150 billion base pairs. Grose, J. H. & Casjens, S. R. Understanding the enormous diversity of bacteriophages: the tailed phages that infect the bacterial family Enterobacteriaceae. 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